As a result of my learning in the Bridging Learning Theory, Instruction, and Technology course, I have come to understand the true merit that lies in each of the learning theories. An educator should take all of the theories into consideration when planning his/her lessons although one or two may become the dominant theory informing the educator’s practice. As stated in Week one of this course, my personal learning theory most closely resembles the Social Constructivist theory, and in light of the coursework I have completed, I now understand how to best use technology in order to support my personal learning theory.
First and foremost, my personal learning theory is now more informed by my understanding of how students learn and are more likely to remember what they have learned as a result of all the learning theories presented in this course. The beginning week of this course, Dr. Patricia Wolfe (2011), reinforced the importance of understanding that learning is “the act of making connections and strengthening them” (Laureate Education Inc.). Providing students with an assortment of opportunities for knowledge acquisition that tap into the various learning styles will provide the best platform for students’ brains to form and sustain a network of connections to that knowledge which is more likely to enter into long-term memory. The Behaviorist approach, though not my chosen focus for a personal learning theory, still holds tremendous importance in classroom management. Reinforcing desirable behaviors in the classroom communicates a students’ positive progress and establishes norms that will serve to motivate students to reach set goals for both behavior and achievement. My knowledge of the Cognitive Learning theory provides me with an awareness of the limits of my students’ short term memory and the types of information that are most likely to be stored in the long-term memory. Understanding the limits of short term memory will allow me to be more conscious of scaffolding my lessons, and I will certainly strive to create as many opportunities for episodic memory as possible for my students since it is the powerhouse of long-term memory networking.
Since my personal learning theory is rooted in the social constructivist learning theory, I am grateful to have had the opportunity to better understand these theories and now possess some technology tools that will support this theory in my classroom. Some immediate changes in my instructional practice will revolve around the importance of providing recognition and feedback to my students. By using sites such as Edmodo.com and ClassDojo.com, I can provide immediate recognition and feedback in a timely manner. ClassDojo will aid in the facilitating opportunities to reinforce positive behaviors and highlight stellar performance. Edmodo will help streamline an online classroom environment that allows for class discussion, peer feedback, surveying students, and tracking class assignments and due dates.
One long term goal that I have is to use the power of VoiceThread in my classroom as a means of establishing a social learning culture in my classroom. One way in which I intend to use VoiceThread is to enhance my vocabulary instruction. I can post a series of pictures that represent one of the vocabulary words for the current unit on a VoiceThread and have students respond with his/her opinion as which vocabulary word is being represented in the picture. Using a VoiceThread to have students voice his/her opinions allows students the opportunity to listen to others ideas and then form and express his/her unique perspective. When students become familiar with how to navigate VoiceThreads, I could then challenge him/her to create a VoiceThread for a given set of vocabulary words or another area of study.
A final long-term goal for my instructional practice is to convert my current approach to units of study within my curriculum into Problem-Based Inquiry. I can begin this process by exploring how the current units of study link to open-ended questions that address real-world challenges and problems. The units of study then become a springboard for thinking and deeply considering how literature reflects the challenges of our society. Students will then be tasked with addressing these problems in a collaborative, student-centered learning task. One way to approach these units would be through the construction of a Webquest that asks students to research and construct an artifact that tackles the problem presented. Other educational technology could be employed by students as a means of organizing information or as a tool for creating the artifact he/she will use to address the problem of the unit of study.
The Bridging Learning Theory, Instruction, and Technology course has expanded my repertoire of instructional skills which will ultimately serve my students and teaching practice very well. I now possess an artillery of educational technology tools that will help me in providing my students with both engaging and relevant learning experiences. Additionally this course has given me a wonderful collection of technology tools that will aid me in better facilitating instructional strategies that are proven to increase student achievement. My instructional practice has been transformed as a result of this course.
References:
Glazer, E. (2001). Problem Based Instruction. In M. Orey (Ed.), Emerging perspectives on
learning, teaching, and technology. Retrieved <insert date>, from http://
projects.coe.uga.edu/epltt/
Laureate Education, Inc. (Producer). (2011). Program one: Understanding the brain [Video webcast].
Bridging learning theory, instruction and technology. Retrieved from http://laureate.ecollege.com
/ec/crs/default.learn?
CourseID=5700267&CPURL=laureate.ecollege.com&Survey=1&47=2594577&
ClientNodeID=984650&coursenav=0&bhcp=
Sunday, August 18, 2013
Thursday, August 1, 2013
Cooperative Learning
Humans are highly social beings. However, the application of socialization is not strictly for entertainment but serves much larger purposes. In fact, Social Constructivists proclaim that reality does not exist prior to social involvement (Orey, 2001). Cooperative learning strategies can help students to build personal meaning, or reality, by constructing knowledge and conversing with others.
Social learning theories center around the importance of context and culture as vital components in building knowledge of the world at large (Laureate Education Inc., 2011). Cooperative learning brings together a diverse collection of personal knowledge in order to construct a newly fashioned culture of learners. When an educator designs cooperative learning activities in such a way that students feel a sense of obligation to the others in his/her group and a feeling of “positive interdependence” then a successful culture of learning can take place. Cooperative learning groups create varied ways to interact with a “more knowledgeable other” as Vgotsky claimed was crucial to learning (Laureate Education Inc., 2011).
Cooperative learning activities can be easily constructed using educational technology. Multimedia presentations allow students with a variety of talents and knowledge to come together to both contribute their acquired knowledge and learn from the knowledge of others. A variety of roles and responsibilities can be crafted for constructing a multimedia presentation which calls upon a diverse collection of talent (Pitler, Hubbell, & Kuhn, 2012 p 75). Additionally, website creation is an excellent cooperative learning activity made possible with educational technology. Instead of simply gaining “inert knowledge” students can apply what they have learned in a unit by constructing a website with a specific audience and purpose in mind (Laureate Education Inc., 2011). Today’s technology makes building a website very intuitive and convenient using websites such as pbworks.com or ning.com (Pitler, Hubbell, & Kuhn, 2012 p 79). Teachers often struggle with providing students ample online access time within the confines of the school period. These sites allow students to contribute to the group from remote locations outside of the classroom.
Cooperative learning optimizes learning by allowing students to gain knowledge about content through the construction of artifacts and the knowledge his/her peers possess. Cooperative learning allows students to truly become part of a learning community for which he/she contributes the personal meanings his/her life has provided them.
References:
Laureate Education, Inc. (Producer). (2011). Program eight: Social learning theories [Video webcast]. Bridging learning theory, instruction and technology. Retrieved from http://laureate.ecollege.com/ec/crs/default.learn?CourseID=5700267&CPURL=laureate.ecollege.com&Survey=1&47=2594577&ClientNodeID=984650&coursenav=0&bhcp=1
Orey, M.(Ed.). (2001). Emerging perspectives on learning, teaching, and technology. Social
constructivism. Retrieved July 29, 2013: from http://projects.coe.uga.edu/epltt/
Pitler, H., Hubbell, E. R., & Kuhn, M. (2012). Using technology with classroom instruction that
works
Social learning theories center around the importance of context and culture as vital components in building knowledge of the world at large (Laureate Education Inc., 2011). Cooperative learning brings together a diverse collection of personal knowledge in order to construct a newly fashioned culture of learners. When an educator designs cooperative learning activities in such a way that students feel a sense of obligation to the others in his/her group and a feeling of “positive interdependence” then a successful culture of learning can take place. Cooperative learning groups create varied ways to interact with a “more knowledgeable other” as Vgotsky claimed was crucial to learning (Laureate Education Inc., 2011).
Cooperative learning activities can be easily constructed using educational technology. Multimedia presentations allow students with a variety of talents and knowledge to come together to both contribute their acquired knowledge and learn from the knowledge of others. A variety of roles and responsibilities can be crafted for constructing a multimedia presentation which calls upon a diverse collection of talent (Pitler, Hubbell, & Kuhn, 2012 p 75). Additionally, website creation is an excellent cooperative learning activity made possible with educational technology. Instead of simply gaining “inert knowledge” students can apply what they have learned in a unit by constructing a website with a specific audience and purpose in mind (Laureate Education Inc., 2011). Today’s technology makes building a website very intuitive and convenient using websites such as pbworks.com or ning.com (Pitler, Hubbell, & Kuhn, 2012 p 79). Teachers often struggle with providing students ample online access time within the confines of the school period. These sites allow students to contribute to the group from remote locations outside of the classroom.
Cooperative learning optimizes learning by allowing students to gain knowledge about content through the construction of artifacts and the knowledge his/her peers possess. Cooperative learning allows students to truly become part of a learning community for which he/she contributes the personal meanings his/her life has provided them.
References:
Laureate Education, Inc. (Producer). (2011). Program eight: Social learning theories [Video webcast]. Bridging learning theory, instruction and technology. Retrieved from http://laureate.ecollege.com/ec/crs/default.learn?CourseID=5700267&CPURL=laureate.ecollege.com&Survey=1&47=2594577&ClientNodeID=984650&coursenav=0&bhcp=1
Orey, M.(Ed.). (2001). Emerging perspectives on learning, teaching, and technology. Social
constructivism. Retrieved July 29, 2013: from http://projects.coe.uga.edu/epltt/
Pitler, H., Hubbell, E. R., & Kuhn, M. (2012). Using technology with classroom instruction that
works
Voice Thread
Here is the link to my Voice Thread. I hope everyone is able to access it!
http://walden.voicethread.com/share/4768615/
http://walden.voicethread.com/share/4768615/
Thursday, July 25, 2013
Constructionism in Action
Constructivism confirms that the responsibility for knowledge acquisition lies in the hands of the learner; while constructionism empowers the learner to take the reigns in regards to building new knowledge. Constructionism affords students much of the decision-making in regards to his/her learning, and therefore, requires solid instructional strategies to facilitate this rewarding approach to effective learning. The principles of constructionism provide a foundation for successful implementation in the classroom that correlate precisely with the Generating and Testing Hypotheses strategy.
One of the key principles Constructionism is that learners are engaged in authentic, real-world tasks (Glazer, 2001). When students are asked to participate in generating and testing of information, learning is optimized and is presented in a real-world format (Pitler, Hubbell, and Kuhn, 2012 p. 205) Higher level thinking can be initiated at the onset of the unit by asking students to access prior knowledge in order to better scaffold the new information he/she is about to endeavor learning. Graphic organizers are an appropriate tool to allow students to visualize how his/her previous knowledge connects to the information no being encountered. Not only are students engaging in an authentic, real-world task, but the strategy he/she is employing to learn is an authentic means of gaining knowledge. A thorough understanding of a concept is often brought about by a “cycle of inquiry,” and generating and testing hypotheses is the essence of this cycle (Pitler, Hubbell, and Kuhn, 2012 p. 214).
The authenticity required by the Constructionist learning theory is easily achieved by using a variety of the educational technology tools connected to the Generating and Testing Hypotheses strategy. An educator should optimize the time spent in the classroom by utilizing educational technology is more focused ways. Spreadsheets offered in software programs such as Excel or Numbers are exceptional learning tools for projects that require data calculating and storage capabilities. However, students should be engaged in higher level thinking tasks when asked to use such technology. An educator can achieve this by pre-loading a template with authentic data relevant to a higher level thinking task. By eliminating the tedious work of data entry, the educator has left class time and brain power for the higher level task work. Additionally, instructional interactives provide many authentic, virtual simulations that students find engaging. Many of the instructional interactive software programs provide an abundance of authentic data that educators can use to engage students in higher level thinking activities Pitler, Hubbell, and Kuhn, 2012 p. 215).
References:
Glazer, E. (2001). Problem Based Instruction. In M. Orey (Ed.), Emerging perspectives on learning, teaching, and technology. Retrieved <insert date>, from http://projects.coe.uga.edu/epltt/
Pitler, H., Hubbell, E. R., & Kuhn, M. (2012). Using technology with classroom instruction that works (2nd ed.). Alexandria, VA: ASCD.
One of the key principles Constructionism is that learners are engaged in authentic, real-world tasks (Glazer, 2001). When students are asked to participate in generating and testing of information, learning is optimized and is presented in a real-world format (Pitler, Hubbell, and Kuhn, 2012 p. 205) Higher level thinking can be initiated at the onset of the unit by asking students to access prior knowledge in order to better scaffold the new information he/she is about to endeavor learning. Graphic organizers are an appropriate tool to allow students to visualize how his/her previous knowledge connects to the information no being encountered. Not only are students engaging in an authentic, real-world task, but the strategy he/she is employing to learn is an authentic means of gaining knowledge. A thorough understanding of a concept is often brought about by a “cycle of inquiry,” and generating and testing hypotheses is the essence of this cycle (Pitler, Hubbell, and Kuhn, 2012 p. 214).
The authenticity required by the Constructionist learning theory is easily achieved by using a variety of the educational technology tools connected to the Generating and Testing Hypotheses strategy. An educator should optimize the time spent in the classroom by utilizing educational technology is more focused ways. Spreadsheets offered in software programs such as Excel or Numbers are exceptional learning tools for projects that require data calculating and storage capabilities. However, students should be engaged in higher level thinking tasks when asked to use such technology. An educator can achieve this by pre-loading a template with authentic data relevant to a higher level thinking task. By eliminating the tedious work of data entry, the educator has left class time and brain power for the higher level task work. Additionally, instructional interactives provide many authentic, virtual simulations that students find engaging. Many of the instructional interactive software programs provide an abundance of authentic data that educators can use to engage students in higher level thinking activities Pitler, Hubbell, and Kuhn, 2012 p. 215).
References:
Glazer, E. (2001). Problem Based Instruction. In M. Orey (Ed.), Emerging perspectives on learning, teaching, and technology. Retrieved <insert date>, from http://projects.coe.uga.edu/epltt/
Pitler, H., Hubbell, E. R., & Kuhn, M. (2012). Using technology with classroom instruction that works (2nd ed.). Alexandria, VA: ASCD.
Wednesday, July 17, 2013
Learning for the Long-Term
Achieving long-term memory of new information is the ultimate goal for all learning, but it may be more easily said than done for learners not immersed in a experiential-rich learning environment. The Cognitive Learning Theory details the Information Processing Model where new information must first be registered through the senses before entering into the short term memory, and only through rehearsal does this new information have the potential for staying power in the long-term memory (Laureate Inc, 2011b). It is important to consider the requirements and limitations at each of these important stages of information processing in order to design lessons that utilize instructional strategies appropriate for the full potential of learning to take place.
In the first phase of information processing, the sensory registers require a multi-sensory approach to presenting new information for processing ignition. A multi-sensory approach can be achieved by considering a variety instructional technology tools. Advance organizers are an excellent tool for presenting information to students in a format that captures students’ attention. Using software programs such as Inspiration allows an advance organizer to virtually “come alive” in a sensory capacity. Inspiration allows teachers or students to provide a very visual concept map that also has the potential to include audio feeds as well as hyperlinks to other sensory-rich web environments. In addition to concept-mapping software technologies, virtual field trips provide student with a multi-sensory encounter of new information. Although students are not physically relocating to encounter new information, a kinesthetic connection can be made through the use of smart boards where students can click on and direct the virtual tour.
Short term memory can only process 7+/- 2 pieces of new information at any one time, and so it is important for educators to organize the new information in manageable ways to maximize learning potential (Laureate Inc, 2011b). Once again, the use of advance organizers is essential in this stage of information processing in order for students to be presented with only the most important information in a logical, organized fashion drawing connections to related information. A teacher might consider providing an organizer that contains blank information boxes to be filled out when the student encounters this new information while other boxes are completed in advance by the teacher. The boxes that are completed may represent prior knowledge and the blank boxes anticipate new knowledge to be acquired. Similarly, data collection and analysis tools such as Excel spreadsheets are software programs that easily allow teachers to isolate the new, meaningful information students should be encountering while providing the extraneous data.
Finally, the requirements for achieving long-term memory can be accessed through a diverse collection of instructional technologies. The primary avenue for new information to enter into long-term memory is by elaboration (Laureate Education Inc., 2011a). Encountering this new information in a variety of ways allows for numerous connections or networks to be established a pathway to accessing this information in the long-term memory. Virtual field trips create rich experiences linked to episodic memories. These field trips allow students the opportunity to use higher-level, critical thinking skills such as comparison when re-encountering new information. Additionally, the use of instructional media such as blogs or wikis create experience-rich learning environments where students are asked to demonstrate their understanding of concepts by taking part in online discussions using a variety of media resources. Wikis are wonderful platforms for students to demonstrate their ability to synthesize information he/she has learned through summary and note-taking. Wikis allow students to display his/her ability to capture main ideas and supporting details in the new information they have learned. Social bookmarking also holds the potential for creating and connecting pathways to information that may be stored for later entry into long-term memory.
The instructional strategies of cues, questions, advance organizers, summarizing and note-taking will aid me in teaching for understanding. Each of these powerful strategies has the potential to support one of the three stages of information processing. Technology should be used purposefully to support a particular goal in learning. Understanding the role that a select instructional technology can play in supporting the processing of information is critical.
References:
Laureate Education, Inc. (Producer). (2011a). Program six: Spotlight on technology: Virtual field trips [Video webcast]. Bridging learning theory, instruction and technology. Retrieved from http://laureate.ecollege.com/ec/crs/default.learn?CourseID=5700267&CPURL=laureate.ecollege.com&Survey=1&47=2594577&ClientNodeID=984650&coursenav=0&bhcp=1
Laureate Education, Inc. (Producer). (2011b). Cognitive Learning Theory [Video webcast]. Bridging learning theory, instruction and technology. Retrieved from http://laureate.ecollege.com/ec/crs/default.learn?CourseID=5700267&CPURL=laureate.ecollege.com&Survey=1&47=2594577&ClientNodeID=984650&coursenav=0&bhcp=1
In the first phase of information processing, the sensory registers require a multi-sensory approach to presenting new information for processing ignition. A multi-sensory approach can be achieved by considering a variety instructional technology tools. Advance organizers are an excellent tool for presenting information to students in a format that captures students’ attention. Using software programs such as Inspiration allows an advance organizer to virtually “come alive” in a sensory capacity. Inspiration allows teachers or students to provide a very visual concept map that also has the potential to include audio feeds as well as hyperlinks to other sensory-rich web environments. In addition to concept-mapping software technologies, virtual field trips provide student with a multi-sensory encounter of new information. Although students are not physically relocating to encounter new information, a kinesthetic connection can be made through the use of smart boards where students can click on and direct the virtual tour.
Short term memory can only process 7+/- 2 pieces of new information at any one time, and so it is important for educators to organize the new information in manageable ways to maximize learning potential (Laureate Inc, 2011b). Once again, the use of advance organizers is essential in this stage of information processing in order for students to be presented with only the most important information in a logical, organized fashion drawing connections to related information. A teacher might consider providing an organizer that contains blank information boxes to be filled out when the student encounters this new information while other boxes are completed in advance by the teacher. The boxes that are completed may represent prior knowledge and the blank boxes anticipate new knowledge to be acquired. Similarly, data collection and analysis tools such as Excel spreadsheets are software programs that easily allow teachers to isolate the new, meaningful information students should be encountering while providing the extraneous data.
Finally, the requirements for achieving long-term memory can be accessed through a diverse collection of instructional technologies. The primary avenue for new information to enter into long-term memory is by elaboration (Laureate Education Inc., 2011a). Encountering this new information in a variety of ways allows for numerous connections or networks to be established a pathway to accessing this information in the long-term memory. Virtual field trips create rich experiences linked to episodic memories. These field trips allow students the opportunity to use higher-level, critical thinking skills such as comparison when re-encountering new information. Additionally, the use of instructional media such as blogs or wikis create experience-rich learning environments where students are asked to demonstrate their understanding of concepts by taking part in online discussions using a variety of media resources. Wikis are wonderful platforms for students to demonstrate their ability to synthesize information he/she has learned through summary and note-taking. Wikis allow students to display his/her ability to capture main ideas and supporting details in the new information they have learned. Social bookmarking also holds the potential for creating and connecting pathways to information that may be stored for later entry into long-term memory.
The instructional strategies of cues, questions, advance organizers, summarizing and note-taking will aid me in teaching for understanding. Each of these powerful strategies has the potential to support one of the three stages of information processing. Technology should be used purposefully to support a particular goal in learning. Understanding the role that a select instructional technology can play in supporting the processing of information is critical.
References:
Laureate Education, Inc. (Producer). (2011a). Program six: Spotlight on technology: Virtual field trips [Video webcast]. Bridging learning theory, instruction and technology. Retrieved from http://laureate.ecollege.com/ec/crs/default.learn?CourseID=5700267&CPURL=laureate.ecollege.com&Survey=1&47=2594577&ClientNodeID=984650&coursenav=0&bhcp=1
Laureate Education, Inc. (Producer). (2011b). Cognitive Learning Theory [Video webcast]. Bridging learning theory, instruction and technology. Retrieved from http://laureate.ecollege.com/ec/crs/default.learn?CourseID=5700267&CPURL=laureate.ecollege.com&Survey=1&47=2594577&ClientNodeID=984650&coursenav=0&bhcp=1
Thursday, July 11, 2013
Desirable Behaviors Reinforced Through Technology
The Behaviorist Learning Theory has gotten a bad reputation through the years, but still shapes the very instructional strategies educators use almost every day in the classroom. It is important to understand that "Operant-Conditioning" is not grounded simply in consequences and punishments, but instead primarily focuses on the reinforcement of positive behaviors.
The first instructional strategy I explored this week in the course text, Reinforcing Effort and Providing Recognition, relates most directly to the Behaviorist learning theory. Perhaps the most enlightening point was the importance of reinforcing students' beliefs about the relationship between effort and achievement (Pittler, Hubbell, and Kuhn, 2013 p 57). I know that I, personally, lose sight of the fact that this is not an inherent concept for most students by the time they enter my classroom in ninth grade. Perhaps this important concept deserves its own unit or course, but I know extra time is not a luxury most educators can afford. This is where I see the correlation between educational technology and learning theory. A simple survey or poll conducted using a platform such as surveymonkey.com or an easily developed spreadsheet given at poignant points throughout the year can gauge students' understanding of how their effort is directly relating to their success. Recognition no longer needs to be confined to the walls of the classroom on bulletin boards, but perhaps more authentically could be displayed on a class, district, or community website where students feel the true nature of their positive efforts.
There are a plethora of websites aimed at aiding teachers in offering positive recognition and reinforcing the importance of homework and practice. One such resource that I have found to be extremely useful in coordinating these important instructional strategies is Edmodo.com. Edmodo allows teachers to create a kind of virtual classroom combining many of the Web 2.0 tools into one local virtual environment. Teachers can award online badges recognizing the efforts of students in this online classroom. Additionally, teachers can post homework, upcoming events, and long-term projects to a calendar for students to track their homework and practice expectations. Real-time surveys and polls can be created through Edmodo for instant data collection. Finally, Edmodo allows students to communicate with the teacher as well as other students in a blog-like fashion. I feel this educational technology holds the most possibilities for utilizing the instructional strategies studied in this week's learning resources as well as tapping into many of the principles behind the Behaviorist Learning theory.
References:
Pitler, H., Hubbell, E. R., & Kuhn, M. (2012). Using technology with classroom instruction that works (2nd ed.). Alexandria, VA: ASCD.
The first instructional strategy I explored this week in the course text, Reinforcing Effort and Providing Recognition, relates most directly to the Behaviorist learning theory. Perhaps the most enlightening point was the importance of reinforcing students' beliefs about the relationship between effort and achievement (Pittler, Hubbell, and Kuhn, 2013 p 57). I know that I, personally, lose sight of the fact that this is not an inherent concept for most students by the time they enter my classroom in ninth grade. Perhaps this important concept deserves its own unit or course, but I know extra time is not a luxury most educators can afford. This is where I see the correlation between educational technology and learning theory. A simple survey or poll conducted using a platform such as surveymonkey.com or an easily developed spreadsheet given at poignant points throughout the year can gauge students' understanding of how their effort is directly relating to their success. Recognition no longer needs to be confined to the walls of the classroom on bulletin boards, but perhaps more authentically could be displayed on a class, district, or community website where students feel the true nature of their positive efforts.
There are a plethora of websites aimed at aiding teachers in offering positive recognition and reinforcing the importance of homework and practice. One such resource that I have found to be extremely useful in coordinating these important instructional strategies is Edmodo.com. Edmodo allows teachers to create a kind of virtual classroom combining many of the Web 2.0 tools into one local virtual environment. Teachers can award online badges recognizing the efforts of students in this online classroom. Additionally, teachers can post homework, upcoming events, and long-term projects to a calendar for students to track their homework and practice expectations. Real-time surveys and polls can be created through Edmodo for instant data collection. Finally, Edmodo allows students to communicate with the teacher as well as other students in a blog-like fashion. I feel this educational technology holds the most possibilities for utilizing the instructional strategies studied in this week's learning resources as well as tapping into many of the principles behind the Behaviorist Learning theory.
References:
Pitler, H., Hubbell, E. R., & Kuhn, M. (2012). Using technology with classroom instruction that works (2nd ed.). Alexandria, VA: ASCD.
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